Chap.15 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

Chap. 15: The conceptual basis of grammar 语法系统的概念基础

• Here we uses the term “grammar” to refer to the closed-class or grammatical subsystem: grammatical words and morphemes, grammatical categories and function. 在本章中，“语法”这一词的意义是指封闭性词类或语法系统：语法词或语法词素，语法范畴和功能。
• To claim that grammar has a conceptual basis is to claim that grammar is meaningful. Linguists have traditionally defined the closed-class elements of language in terms of structure, function and distribution rather than in semantic terms. In this chapter, we are primarily concerned with the semantics of the closed-class elements. 说语法系统具有概念基础也就是说语法系统是具有意义的。传统来看，语言学家对语言中封闭性成分的研究主要着眼于结构、功能和分布，而非意义研究。在本章中，我们主要关注封闭性成分的意义研究。

The grammatical subsystem: encoding semantic structure 语法系统：编码语义结构

• Cognitive linguists argue that grammar is independently meaningful because, like the open-class system, it has a conceptual basis. Grammar derives from and reflects embodied experience in a similar way to open-class expressions; the difference between the open and closed classes relates only to the degree of semantic specificity or shcematicity that a linguistic unit encodes. 认知语言学家认为，像开放性词类系统一样，语法也是具有意义的，具有概念基础。语法系统与开放性词类系统一样，从涉身经验而来，又反过来反映了涉身经验。开放性词类和封闭性词类的不同在于语义的具体性和图式性程度不同。

Talmy’s Conceptual Structuring System Model 概念结构系统模型

• One of the claims that defines the cognitive model is that there is no principled distinction between the lexical and grammatical subsystems. Nevertheless, Talmy has argued for a qualitative distinction between the lexical and grammatical subsystems. 语法的认知研究的一个观点是，在词汇和语法系统中间没有完全的界线。但Talmy认为词汇和语法系统之间存在定性区分。
• According to the cognitive perspective, there is no need to posit grammatical rules because the schematic meaning encoded by closed-class elements entails constrains upon how the units of grammar can be combined within complex construction. Thus these two kinds of meaning encode and externalise distinct but equally important aspects of a particular scene. 认知语法认为，语法规则没有存在的必要，因为封闭性成分具有的图式性意义包含了复杂构式内语法单位如何相互结合的信息。因此，两种意义表达了关于一个场景的不同但同样重要的方面。
• Talmy’s research has primarily concerned with schematic or structural meaning encoded by the grammatical subsystem. We call Talmy’s model the Conceptual Structuring System Model because he argues that the schematic structure encoded by closed-class elements can be divided into a series of different systems. In this section, we explore each of these systems and see how they are claimed to account for some of the grammatical properties of language.Talmy的研究主要是关于语法系统表达的图式性或结构性意义的。我们把Talmy的理论称为概念结构系统模型，因为他提出，封闭性成分表达的图式性结构可以被分为多个不同的系统。在这一部分，我们将逐个探讨这些系统。

The configuration of SPACE and TIME

• SPACE and TIME are viewed as the primary basic domains. The quantity in the domain of SPACE is matter, which may be either continuous or discrete, illustrated respectively by air and bike. The quantity in the domain of TIME is action, which can also be continuous or discrete. Continuous action, like sleep, is called activity. Discrete action, like breathe, is described as an act. 空间和时间被认为是两个最基础的基本概念域。空间域中的单位是matter，可能是连续的，被称为mass，如空气；也可能是不连续的，被称为object，如自行车。时间域中的单位是action，同样可能是连续或不连续的。连续性动作，如睡觉，可以称为一个“活动(activity)"；不连续性动作，如呼吸，可以称为一个"行为(act)"。
• The difference between the domains of TIME and SPACE is that while TIME has the property of progression, SPACE is static. Progression means that the quantity within the domain changes from one instance to the next. In contrast, change is not an inherent property of objects. 时间域和空间域的不同在于，时间域具有进程(progression)的性质，而空间域是静止的。进程的性质是指在该概念域中的单位能够从一个变化到下一个。而相对于来说，物体一般不具有变化这一性质。
• According to Talmy, these two conceptual domains are reflected in the way the grammatical subsystem encodes and externalises patterns of thought. In other words, the distinction between the domains of SPACE and TIME is reflected in grammatical structure. Talmy认为，这两种概念域通过语法系统外化人类思想这个过程而得到反映和体现。换句话说，空间域和时间域两者的不同在语法结构中得到反映和体现。

Conceptual alternativity 概念替换

• The membership of concepts within the domains of SPACE and TIME is not fixed. The ability to conceptualise a member of one domain in terms of another is called conceptual alternativity. Conceptual alternativity is reflected in the closed-class subsystem by grammatical categories. Conceptual alternativity is facilitated by a number of conceptual conversion operations. 空间域和时间域中的概念不是固定的。概念替换即是在说用一个概念域的成员去理解另一个概念域的成员。概念替换体现在封闭性成分系统中，概念替换通过一系列概念变换操作来实现。
• For example, reification is the name of the conversion operation that converts our conceptualisation of TIME (or action) into SPACE (or matter): an act can be converted into an object, or an activity into a mass. When a temporal concept is reified, it is expressed by a nominal expression. When an act is contrued as an object, it can be described in terms consistent with the properties of objects.如，具体化就是一种概念变换操作。具体化是指将时间域的概念用空间域的概念来理解，如act可以被理解为object，activity可以被理解为mass。当一个时间概念被具体化后，它就被通过名词性语言得到表达。当一个act被建构为object后，它就被视为具有object的某些性质了。
• The converse operation, which converts matter to action, is called actionalisation. When concepts relating to matter are actionalised, they are expressed by verb phrases. 另一种下相反的概念变换操作是动作化，即将事物转换为动作。当与概念相关的概念被动作化后，它们通过动词词组得以表达。

Schematic systems 图式性系统

• Talmy argues that the grammatical subsystem is divided up into a number of schematic systems. In essence, Talmy’s thesis is that closed-class elements encode different kinds of schematic meaning which cluster together within a single system of shematic meaning. Talmy elaborates four distinct schematic systems. (See also Chap. 6) Talmy提出，语法系统可以被进一步分为数个图式性系统。从本质上来看，该论点认为封闭性成分代表着不同种类的图式性意义，它们可以被分别划归某个图式意义群组。Talmy主要提出了四个不同的图式性系统。同时可见第6章。
  
  
• The Configurational Structure System 配置结构系统
  -The Congiturational Structure System imposes structure upon the elements of the domains of SPACE and TIME. Talmy proposes six further shematic categories within the Configurational Structure System. These categories structure the scenes encoded by language and the participants that interact within these scenes.
  -1. Plexity: number and aspect 复杂性：数和体
  Plexity relates to whether a quantity of TIME or SPACE consists of one (uniplex) or more than one (multiplex) equivalent elements. When related to SPACE (or matter), this is the basis of the grammatical category number. When related to the domain of TIME (or action), plexity forms part of the basis for the distinction between semelfactive versus iterative lexical aspect. Lexical aspect relates to the internal structure of an event and is linguistically encoded in a number of ways. Lexical aspect is distinct from grammatical aspect in that it it built into the meaning of the lexical item rather than being grammatically marked. 复杂性指时间域和空间域内的单位是由一个或多个相同成分组成的。空间域中，复杂性体现在“数“这一范畴。时间域中，复杂性体现在“词汇体”的区分中，是semelfactive还是iterative。“词汇体”指某事件的内部结构，通过多种方式体现在语言中。“词汇体”和“语法体”的区别在于，词汇体没有单独的语法表达，词汇体是体现在词汇本身当中的。
  -2. Boundedness: count, mass and aspect 有界性（非有界性）
  The term boundedness relates to whether a quantity is understood as having inherent boundaries (bounded) or not (unbounded). “有界性”指域内某成分被认为是内部可分（有界）或是不可分（无界）的。
  In the domain of SPACE, this is the basis of the count/mass noun distinction. For example, an entity with inherent boundaries can be individuated and counted.在空间域中，count和mass类名词的区分就是依据有界性。比如，具有内部有界性的成分能够被individuated和counted。
  In the domain of TIME, boundedness is the basis of the distinction between perfect and imperfect grammatical aspect. Perfect aspect encodes an event that is completed and can thus be thought of as bounded. Imperfect aspect encode an event that is ongoing and can thus be thought of as unbounded. Verbs can also be inherently bounded or unbounded in terms of their lexical aspect, which is traditionally described as telicity. Telicity verbs entail what we can think of as an inherent endpoint or goal. Telicity can be thought of as boundedness and atelicity as unboundedness. It is possible to convert unbounded quantity into a bounded portion, a process called excerpting. The converse operation is called debounding.
  在时间域中，有界性可以通过语法体中完成体和非完成体的区别来体现。完成体代表了已完成的事件，可以被认为是有界的。非完成体代表了还在进行的世界，因此被认为是非有界的。从词汇体来看，动词也可以被划分为有界和非有界的；词汇体方面的有界和非有界体现在是否具有终点性，即一个动词是否具有终点。无界成分可以被转换成有界成分，这种操作被称为excerpting；同时，有界成分也可以被转换成无界成分，这种操作被称为debounding。
  -3. Dividedness 连续性（不连续性）
  Dividedness relates to the internal segmentation of a quantity and underlies the distinction between discrete and continuous matter. The properties “unbounded” and “continuous” are not the same, although they can correlate. For example, the mass noun oxygen is both continuous and unbounded; in contrast, the mass nouns timber and furniture are unbounded but have internally discrete structure.
  连续性（不连续性）与单位内部的划分相关，连续性（不连续性）区分了discrete和continuous的不同。要注意区分"unbounded"和"continuous"，两者虽然相关联，但各自不同。例如，oxygen是continuous，也是unbounded。但timber和furniture虽然是unbounded，但是discrete的。
  ^^ Notice: 如果某事物是bounded，那么它是可数的。如果某事物是discrete，那么它是内部可分的（即内部可以被进一步划分）。
  -4. Disposition of quantity: the role of closed-class elements
  Talmy describes the intersection between these three schematic categories in terms of disposition of quantity. We can think of disposition of quantity as a bundle of attributes that characterises certain conceptual categories and is reflected in the grammatical subsystem. 下表综合了上面提到的三个范畴。我们可以把这些性质认为了具体概念范畴具有的特征，通过语法系统体现。
  Closd-class elements play a key role in the conversion of quantity from one state to another. 封闭性成分在转换单位状态上发挥着重要作用。
  
  
  -5. Degree of extension: aspect and preposition phrases 延伸性
  Degree of extension relates to how far quantities of SPACE and TIME stretch over distance. For example, SPACE and TIME can be either a point (speck, die), a bounded extent (ladder, wash up), or an unbounded extent (river, sleep). 延伸性（延伸程度）是空间域和事件域内单位能够延伸的能力。可以被分为三种，点（斑点，死），有限延伸（梯子，清洗），和无限延伸（河流，睡觉）。
  Take verbs as an example. The differences between these verbs, as they relate to degree of extension, is one more a matter of lexical aspect. The preposition in the adverbial expression determines the compatibility with the meaning encoded by the verb. However, these adverbial expressions can sometimes modify the degree of extension encoded by a verb. 以动词为例，不同动词间延伸性的不同，也体现了词汇体的不同。与动词搭配的状语类表达中的介词与不同延伸性的动词适配，而另一方面，这些状语类表达也能够改变动词的延伸性。
  
  -6. Pattern of distribution: aspect and preposition phrases
  Pattern of distribution relates to how matter is distributed through SPACE and how action is distributed through TIME. 分布方式是指：空间域内matter是如何分布的，以及时间域内action是怎么分布的。
  
  Like degree of extension, this category largely determines aspect, and is reflected in the compatibility or imcompatibility of certain verbs with certain grammatical construction. 同延展性（程度）一样，这一范畴也是词语体的体现，同样也具有不同动词适配不同语法构式的现象。
  -7. Axiality: degree modifiers 轴对称性
  This relates to the way a quantity of SPACE or TIME is structured according to a directed axis. For example, the adjectives well and sick are points on an axis relating to health. On the axis, well is the endpoint, whereas sick is the reminder of the axis. This explains the different distribution of the closed-class degree modifiers like almost and slightly in relation to these adjective. 轴对称性与空间域和时间域内的单位根据某种参考轴而形成的结构有关。如，形容词well和sick就是在health这个参考轴上的不同位置。well位于endpoint的位置，而sick只是一个普通的reminder的位置。与此相对，封闭性成分中的程度修饰词也分别对应不同的修饰词，如位于endpoint的almost对应well，而slightly对应的是sick。
  -In sum, we have seen that quantity in SPACE is prototypically encoded by nouns, while quantity in TIME is prototypically encoded by verbs. The discussion above begins to establish how the grammatical subsystem provides shematic or structural meaning to the linguistic expression of the cognitive representation. 总而言之，我们可以看到，空间域中的成分普遍通过名词来表达，时间域中的成分普遍通过动词来表达。以上的讨论我们可以看到语法系统是如何给语言表达提供了图式性/结构性的意义。
  ** The Attentional System 注意力系统**
  -The Attentional System governs the distribution of attention over matter and action and is governed by three main factors. The first factor is strength, which relates to the relative prominence of referents: whether they are either background or foregrounded. The second factor is pattern, which concerns how patterns of attention are organised. The third factor is mapping, which governs the way in which parts of an attention pattern are mapped onto parts of the scene described. 注意力系统负责的是注意力如何被分配给空间域中的matter和时间域中的action，注意力系统受三个因素影响。第一个因素是强度(strength)，即所指对象的相对显著性，是前景化还是背景化的。第二个因素是模式(pattern)，是关于注意力组织的方式。第三个因素是投射(mapping)，是关于哪部分注意力被分配到场景的哪部分。
  -Attention is fundamental to the nature of human perception; attention is also fundamental to grammatical organisation. It is important to emphasise that the factors strength, pattern and mapping of attention should not be viewed as distinct types of attention. Instead, they interact to focus attention. 注意力是人类感知的基本特质；注意力也是语法组织的基本特征。要注意的一点是，上面提到的三个因素strength, pattern和mapping不是分开的，而是共同作用，来发挥注意力。
  -1. Focus of attention pattern 注意力模式的焦点
  In terms of strength of attention, the foregrounding results from the mapping of attention onto a particular entity in the scene. The grammatical system encodes this in two ways. Firstly, by the selection of one of several verbs relating to the event frame; and secondly by the associated word order. 从注意力的强度来看，前景化这一结构产生于注意力被投射到情境中的具体某个事体上。语法结构通过两种方式来实现这一结果，一是选择从与该事件框架相关的动词中选择某个具体的动词(如sell和buy)，另一种方式是改变语序。
  The prominence of the clause-initial position illustrates the phenomenon called grammaticality iconicity. In this case, conceptual prominence is mirrored by grammatical prominence. 句首的位置具有注意力上的显著性，称为语法凸显(grammatical iconicity)。在这种情况下，概念显著性通过语法显著性体现出来。
  -2. Windowing pattern 窗口模式
  Windowing pattern involves the explicit mention of some part or parts of a scene (windowing), while other parts may be omitted (gapping). 窗口模式指明确提及某情境中的某部分或某些部分，而其余部分被省略。
  The windowing pattern also accounts for grammatical behaviour, such as the division of the complement category into obligatory and optional complements. For example, spend only requires the money role as an obligatory complement.窗口模式也存在于语法形式中，比如，补语范畴可以被划分为必须补语和可选补语。比如，对于spend来说，它只要一个必须补语money即可，其他的都是可选补语，可有可无。
  -3. Level of attention pattern 注意力模式的层次
  Attention patterns display different level. For example, (1)the ground of friends and (2) the friends in the grounp illustrate two different levels of attention patterns. (1) relates to a Gestalt representation, (2) relates to the internal structure or componentiality of the group. 注意力模式也有不同的层次。详见例句。
• The Perspective System 视角系统
  -The Perspective System establishes a viewpoint from which participants and scenes are viewed. This system involves the four shematic categories: location, distance, mode and direction. 视角系统是关于从哪个视角来审视情境和参与者的系统。视角系统内部有四个范畴：地点，距离，模式和方向。
  
  -1. Perspective location 视角系统-地点
  This category relates to the location that a perspective point occupies relative to a given utterance. The linguistic system of deixis, for example, works by signalling perspective relative to the speaker’s location. The grammatical person system is an example of a deictic category. 地点范畴是指，从相对于话语的某地点来看该话语。例如，语言系统中的指称就表示了关于说话者地点位置的信息。在语法系统中，指称可以通过人称系统来表达。
  -2. Perspective distance 视角系统-距离
  In some languages, open- or closed- expressions can signal proximal, medial or distal distance of a referent relative to speaker or hearer. This phenomenon therefore also relates to deixis. 在有些语言中，开放性和封闭性表达表示了相对于说话者或听话者的近距离、中距离和远距离。这种现象同时也与指称有关。
  -3. Perspective mode 视角系统-模式
  This schematic category relates to whether a perspective point is in motion or not. This interacts with perspectival distance, where distal tends to correlate with stationary and proximal with moving. If the perspective point is stationary, it is in synoptic mode; if the perspective point is moving, it is in sequential mode. This category is also relevant to aspect. Perfect aspect encodes a perspective that is distal and stationary, progreesive aspect encodes an event that is proximal and moving. 模式范畴是关于某观察视角是出于静止还是运动状态，这一点与视角距离也有关系，一般来说，“远距离”与“静止”相联系，“近距离”与“运动”相联系。这一范畴同时也和语法体有关。完成体暗示着某视角是远距离的，是静止的；进行体暗示着某视角是近距离的，是运动的。
  -4. Perspectival direction 视角系统-方向
  This category also interacts closely with attention and concerns the direction in which an event is viewed relative to a given point. The direction can be prospective or retrospective. For example, (1) George finished the champagne before he went home and (2) Before he went home, George finished the champagne. 该范畴同样与注意力密切相关，方向是指从相对于某点的某个方向来选取视角看待事物。方向可以是从后向前(perspective)，也可以是从前向后(retrospective)。例如（1）和（2）句的区别。
  
• The Force-Dynamics System 力量-动态系统
  -This system relates to our experience of how physical entities interact with respect to force. The Force-Dynamics System encodes the “naive physics” of our conceptual system rather than scientific understanding of force dynamics. 力量-动态系统描述了事体与力量之间的互动关系。力量-动态系统代表了存在于我们概念系统中的力量和动态，而非关于实际意义上的力量和动态的科学性理解。
  -The Force-Dynamics System assumes two entities that exert force. The agonist is the entity that receives focal attention and the antagonist is the entity that opposes the agonist, either overcoming the force of the agonist or failing to overcome it. The force intrinsic to the antagonist is either towards action or towars rest, and the force intrinsic to the antagonist is the opposite. 力量-动态系统认为有两个事体在实施力。一个是主动者(agonist)，主动者收到注意力；一个是阻动者(antagonist)，与主动者对立。主动者本质具有的力可能是倾向“动”也可能是倾向“静”，阻动者本质具有的力与主动者相反。
  For example,
  (1) The glass [AGO] kept rolling because of the breeze [ANT].
  (2) Lily [AGO] kept standing despite the gale [ANT].
  (3) The glass [AGO] kept rolling despite the nud [ANT].
  Observe that the force-dynamics of the interaction are expressed here by closed-class elements: the conjunctions because of and despite. While because of encodes the greater force of the antagonist, despite encodes the greater force of the agonist. 从以上例句可以看出，封闭性成分能够表达力量-动态性质，如连词because of和despite。because of代表了antagonist的力量更强，而despite代表了agonist的力量更强。

• The Force-Dynamics System has implications not only for the expression of relationships between physical entities, but also for abstract concepts such as permission and obligation (modal categories). It means that the Force-Dynamics System also underlies the behavior of another major close-class category: the modal auxiliaries. For example, can encodes a tendency towards action. In contrast, must encodes a tendency towards rest that is overcome by the force of the antagonist. 力量-动态系统不仅表示了事体之间的关系，而且能够标题抽象概念的力量和动态，如“允准(permission)”“必须(obligation)”等（即情态范畴）。这也意味着，力量-动态系统也是另一个封闭里成分，即情态助词，的使用基础。例如，can代表一种趋向于动作的状态，而must则代表着一种趋向于静止但被阻动者组织了的状态。
  ** In conclusion, we have seen that how the four shcematic systems are reflected in the grammatical subsystem of language. While the first three schematic systems relate most prominently to visual preception, the Force-Dynamics System relates most prominently to kinaesthetic (motor) perception. 总而言之，通过以上的论述，我们可以看到，这四个图式性系统都可以通过语言的语法系统得到表达。前三个系统最主要于视觉感知相关，力量-动态系统则主要与动觉相关。**
  

Langacker’s theory of Cognitive Grammar：Langacker的认知语法理论

• In this section, we address some of the grammatical phenomena identified by Langacker from the perspective of their conceptual basis. 在这一部分，我们主要讨论的是Langacker提出的一些语法现象，以及它们的概念基础。

The conceptual basis of word classes 词类的概念基础

• Like Talmy, Langacker argues that word classes have a conceptual basis. According to Langacker’s model, linguistic expressions divide into two broad categories: nominal predications and relational predications. (The term “predication” relates to meaning and refers to the semantic pole of a symbolic unit.) This distinction relates to the nature of the schematic meaning encoded by nouns and noun phrases (nominals) on the one hand, and by other lexical classes like verbs, adjectives, prepositions and so on (relations) on the other. Nominal predications are conceptually autonomous; in contrast, relational predications are conceptually dependent, which means that rely on other units to complete their meaning. 同Talmy的观点一样，Langacker也认为词类划分是具有概念基础的。根据Langacker提出的理论模型，语法表达可以被分为两大范畴：名词性陈述(nominal predications)和关系型陈述(relational predications)。陈述(predication)这一术语指“意义”，也就是象征性单位中的语义端。名词性陈述和关系性陈述的区分其实本质上是，名词性图式意义和关系性图式意义的区分。名词性图式意义通过名词和名词词组（名词性表达，nominals）来表达，关系性图式意义通过其他词类（关系性表达，relations）来表达，包括动词，形容词，介词等等。名词性陈述在概念上是意义自治的，与之相对，关系性陈述在概念上是依赖于其他才能获得完整意义。
• Noun predications 名词性陈述
  -Langacker argues that physical objects are the prototypical referents for the noun category. A noun encodes a region in some domain, and a count noun encodes a bounded region in some domain. A region is bounded if there is some inherent limit to the set of entities that constitute it. A region is defined as a set of interconnected entities. Sometimes the entities that comprise the region are homogeneous and sometimes they are individuated. The notion of homogeneity versus individuation is reminiscent of Talmy’s parameter of dividedness. As this brief sketch illustrates, Langacker relies upon a similar core of conceptual properties as Talmy in his characterisation of the noun category. Langacker认为实物是名词范畴的典型所指物。一个名词归属于一个域中的某个区域，比如一个可数名词就归属于一个域中的有界区域(bounded region)。在Langacker的论述中，事物也有”同质性“和”个体性“的区分。实际上我们可以看到，这与Talmy之前对名词范畴的特征总结在本质上是类似的。（Talmy总结了: boundedness-unboundedness; dividedness-continuous)。
• Relational predications 关系性陈述
  -While nominal predications describe entities, relational predications describe relations between entities. Langacker divides the category of relational predications into two subcategories: temporal and atemporal relations. Temporal relations are processes and are encoded by verbs. Atemporal relations is a more disparate category and contains prepositions, adjectives, adverbs and non-finite verb forms (infinitives and participles). 名词性陈述描述的是事物，关系性陈述描述的是事物间的关系。Langacker把关系性陈述范畴分为两个下级范畴：时间性关系和非时间性关系。时间性关系是进程，通过动词表述。非时间性关系范畴由介词，形容词，副词和非限定性动词形式（不定式和分词）等组成 。
  -To distinguish temporal and atemporal, Langacker distinguishes conceived time and processing time. We can think of processing time as real time. On the other hand, conceived time refers to the cognitive representation of time, where time is an object of conceptualisation. Within conceived time, Langacker distinguishes the processes of summary scanning and sequential scanning, where scanning relates to how the aspects of a scene are perceived and give rise to a conceptual representation. Summary scanning gives rise to a Gestalt representation of time as a unified whole and characterises static scenes. And sequential scanning gives rise to a conceptualisation of time as a dynamic process and characterises events. Langacker likens the distinction between summary and sequential scanning to the difference between a photograph and a film. 为了区分时间性和非时间性，Langacker提出了conceived time和processing time的区别。我们可以认为processing time就是真实时间，conceived time则是存在于概念表征上的。对于conceived time来说，Langacker区分了摘要性描述和顺序性描述。摘要性描述产生的是格式塔概念表征，将时间表征为一个整体、静止的情境。顺序性描述将时间表征为动态的过程。Langacker将摘要性表述和顺序性表述的区别用照片和电影之间的区别来表示。
• Attention 注意力
  -In Langacker’s definition, “Attention is intrinsically associated with the intensity or energy level of cognitive process, which translates experientially into to great prominence or salience.” 用Langacker的话说，“注意力是与认知过程的强度和精力程度相关的，反映在实践中就是显著性程度。”
  -Attention is differentially focused on a particular aspect of a given scene, and this is achieved in language by a range of focal adjustment, which adjust the focus on a particular aspect of any given scene by using different linguistic expressions or different grammatical constructions to describe the scene. And visual perception is central to how we focus attention upon aspects of experience. 注意力会集中在给定情境中的某个特定方面，这一结果是通过语言中一系列的焦点调整(focal adjustment)实现的。焦点调整是指用不同的语言表达或是不同的语法构式来将焦点集中在特定情境中的某个方面。需要注意的是，在集中焦点的过程中，视觉感知起到了主要作用。
  -By choosing a particular focal adjustment and thus linguistically organising a scene in a specific way the speaker imposes a unique construal upon that scene. Construal can be thought of as the way a speaker chooses to package and present a conceptual representation, which in turn has consequences for the conceptual representation that the utterance evokes in the mind of the speaker. 说话者选择一种焦点调整方式，用特定的语言构造出一个特定的情境建构(construal)。建构可以被认为是说话者在概念表征层面进行分组并展示的结果，同时又影响着听话者根据话语建构出来的概念表征。
  -Langacker distinguishes three parameters along which focal adjustments can vary: (1)selection, (2)perspective, (3)abstraction. Langacker提出有焦点调整有三个不同方式：（1）选择(selection)；（2）视角化(perspective)；（3）抽象化(abstraction)。
  (1) Selection 选择:
  Selection determines which aspects of a scene are attended to and relates to the notion of a conceptual domain. 选择决定了情境中的哪些部分被聚焦，与概念域这个概念有关。
  One aspect of construal is the selection of a particular domain. For example, a language expression selects a different domain and therefore contributes to a very different construal in each sentence. 一、特定概念域的选择。例如，一个语言表达就选择了一个特定的概念域，影响了句子搭建的不同建构。
  A second aspect of selection, and one that is fundamental to Langacker’s approach, relates to profiling. Profiling is described as “conceptually highlighting” some aspect of a domain. Words have profile-base organisation, and base is a conceptual entity necessary for understanding what a word means. For example, ARM is the base for the understanding of ELBOW. Profiling is also reflected in the close-class system. For example, active and passive construction can give rise to different profiling possibilities. 二、突显。突显被描述为“概念上强调”某个域的某个/些方面。词语都具有突显-背景的结构，背景是为了理解一个词语意义的必要信息。例如，ARM是理解ELBOW意义的背景(base)。同时，突显这一现象也在封闭性词类系统中也存在。例如，主动结构构式和被动结构构式就具有不同的突显可能。
  Selection is part of the process of coding. When spearkers wants to express a conceptual representation in language, he or she has choices over which linguistic expressions and constructions are used to package the conceptual representation. Coding is the process of activating these linguistic units. The process of coding is closly interwoven with construal, because decisions about how a situation is construed have consequences for the linguistic expression selected to code the conceptualisation. 选择也是编码的过程。当说话者想用语言表达概念表征时，他能够选择不同的语言表达和不同的构式来分组表达概念表征。编码时激活这些语言单位的过程。编码的过程与建构的过程紧密关联，因为选择如何建构一个情境会影响选择哪一语言表达来编码这一概念。
  （2）视角化(perspective): 射体-界标结构和指称
  The perspective from which a scene is viewed has consequences for the relative prominence of its participants. Langacker argues that the grammatical functions subject and object are reflections of perspective and thus have a conceptual basis. He suggests that the distinction between subject and object relates to the prototype of an action chain, a cognitive model involving an active “energy source” (AGENT) that transfer energy to an “energy sink” (PATIENT). The expression that fulfills the subject function is called the trajector (TR), and the expression that fulfills the object function is called the landmark (LM). TR-LM or subject-object organisation is an instance of figure-ground organisation. Langacker defines TR-LM organisation in terms of a conceptual asymmetry between participants in a profiled relationship: while the TR signifies the focal or most prominent participant, the LM represents the secondary participant. 从某一视角来看待情境会影响情境内成分的相对显著性。Langacker认为，主语和宾语这两种语法功能正是视角化的体现，并且具有概念基础。他提出，主语和宾语的区别与动作链(action chain)原型有关。动作链的认知模型包含一个主动的能量源(energy source)，主动者(AGENT)；和一个能量谷(energy sink)，受动者(PATIENT)。发挥主语功能的语言表达被称为射体(trajector, TR)，发挥宾语功能的语言表达被称为界标(landmark, LM)。TR-LM（或称为主语-宾语）关系结构同时也是figure-ground结构关系的一种。Langacker从成分间的概念不对称性角度来定义TR-LM结构关系：一方面，TR是注意力焦点，是最显著的情境成分；LM则代表了第二层次的成分。
  In an English sentence, the TR comes first and the LM comes second. In a passive sentence, the AGENT is the secondary participant (LM), but it is not the object because passivised verbs do not take objects. Instead, the by-phrase that contains the object behaves more like a modifier and can be deleted. The distinction between these two sentences relates to a shift in perspective.
  在普通的英语的句子中，TR首先出现，LM其次出现。在被动句中，主动者占据了第二层次的地位，成为了LM；但要注意的是此时主动者并非宾语，因为被动后的动词不带宾语。包含宾语的by短语更像是修饰成分，可以随时被删掉。主动句和被动句的区别在于视角的转换。
  Perspective also underpins the personal pronoun system. The grammatical feature person distinguishes speaker, hearer and third party. Person is a deictic category, because SPEAKER, HEARER and THIRD PARTY are not fixed properties of any given individual but shift continually during conversation. According to Langacker, it is our ability to adopt various viewpoints during a conversational exchange that underlies the ease with which we manipulate the person system. 人称代词系统也是基于不同视角的。语法上的人称有三种，说话者，听话者和第三方。人称是一个指称范畴，因为说话者、听话者和第三方不是某个个体的固定性质，而是在谈话期间不断变化的。根据Langacker的论述，正是我们能够在对话中选择不同的视角才让能够操控（使用）人称系统。
  Langacker also argues that the parameter of perspective also gives rise to focal adjustments as a result of the distinction between subjective construal and objective construal. When an individual’s attention is fully focused on some external entity, subjective construal (awareness of self) is backgrounded and objective construal is salient. When an individual’s attention is fully focused on him or herself, subjective construal is foregrounded and objective construal is backgrounded. In reality, objective construal and subjective construal can be seen as extreme poles on a continuum. Where a usual case is that an individual’s attention is partly focused on objective construal and partly focused on subjective constral and one is more salient than the other. Langacker还提出，视角化参数下引起焦点调整的原因还有可能是区分了主观建构和客观建构。当一个个体的注意力全部集中在某外部事物上时，主观建构（关于个体的建构）完全被置于后台/背景，客观建构得到突显。当一个个体的注意力完全集中在他/她自己身上时，主管建构被置于前台/前景，而客观建构被置于后台。在现实情况中，客观建构和主观建构可以被视为是一个连续体上的两个端点。通常情况是，一个个体的注意力部分用于客观建构部分用于主观建构，其中一个方面可能比另一方面稍加显著。
  To see how the distinction between objective and subjective construal is related to perspective, we first introduced the term ground. This term describes any speech event, including the participants, the time of speaking and the immediate physical context. Deictic expressions make specific reference to ground, and Langacker divides them into two broad categories: those that place the ground offstage or in the background, and those that focus attention upon the ground, placing it onstage. The greater the attention upon the ground, the greater the objectivity of construal. Speaker and hearer are usually subjectively construed or off stage, and only become objectively construed or on stage when linguistically profiled by expressions like I or you. In this way, the speaker places himself in the foreground as an object of perception, and becomes objected. According to Langacker, the difference between explicit mention of the ground and implicit dependence upon the ground is a difference of perspective. 为了说明客观和主观建构是如何与视角化联系起来的，我们这里介绍一个名词：ground。Ground描述了任何一个言语行为，包括参与者，说话的时间，和现实背景/情境。指称性表达来具体指称ground，指称性表达可以被分为两个大类：将ground置于后台/背景的指称性表达，或是将注意力集中在ground上，将其置于前台/前景中的指称性表达。越多的注意力集中在ground上，建构的结果就越客观（客观性越强）。说话者和听话者通常被建构在台下，只有特别使用I或者you等表达才会被置于台上。通过使用I，说话者将自己置于台上，称为感知的对象，因此也成为了客观化的。Langakcer认为，明确和不明确提及ground的行为是视角化的体现。
  （3）抽象化（abstraction)
  This focal adjustment operation relates to how specific or detailed the description of a scene is. This also has consequences for the type of construction selected. Abstraction is paralleled by the kinds of linguistic constructions available to us in terms of level of detail. 这一焦点转换操作与情境描述的具体程度相关，同时影响了选用的构式。不同的抽象化程度与不同抽象程度的语言构式相对应。
• Force-dynamics 力-动态
  The term force-dynamics relates to our experience of motion energy. In Langacker’s model, the prototypical action is characterised in terms of the transfer of energy from AGENT to PATIENT resulting in a change of state of the PATIENT. This is called the action chain model. 力-动态与我们的动作能量体验相关。在Langacker的理论模型中，典型action的特征表现为能量从主动者(AGENT)转移到受动者(PATIENT)，使受动者(PATIENT)的状态发生改变。这被称为动作链模型。

Categorisation and polysemy in grammar: the network conception 语法中的范畴化和多义现象：概念网络

• In this section, we revisit the related issues of categorisation and polysemy from a grammatical perspective. 在这一部分，我们从语法的角度来重新审视范畴化和多义现象。
• Langacker develops a network model that represents the structure of categories. In this model, members of a category are viewed as nodes in a complex network. The links between nodes in a network arise from a number of different kinds of categorising relationships that hold between the symbolic units stored in the grammatical inventory. One categorising relationship is extension from a prototype, where an extension shares some but not all attributes of the prototype. A second type of categorising relationship is the relationship between schema and instance. Entrenched units that share a structural pattern give rise to a schematic representation of that structure. The schema structures those related units as a category within the network, and novel expressions can be compared against such categories. According to Langacker, the network can grow upwards via schematisation, outwards via extension and downwards as more detailed instances are added. Langacker提出了一个范畴结构的网络模型。在该模型中，范畴成员被视为复杂网络中的节点。节点间的联系通过不同的范畴化关系产生。其中一种范畴化关系是原型例示-拓展例示关系，拓展例示具有原型例示的某些但不是全部特征。另一种范畴化关系是图式-例示关系。常用的共享同一个结构的单位会产生该结构的一个图示化表征。该图式将那些相关联的单位联系进同一个范畴，新奇表达的处理则是与已有的范畴进行对比。根据Langacker的理论，范畴的网络模型能够通过图示化向上延伸，通过拓展操作向外延伸，通过增加更具体的例示向下延伸。
• The network model characterises not only polysemous open-class elements, but also underlies other kinds of linguistic categories. This means that morphemes, word classes and grammatical constructions are also envisaged as nodes in a network. While some nodes are structurally simplex, other nodes themselves have complex internal structure. 范畴的网络模型不仅适用于开放性成分，但也可以用于其他语言单位的范畴，如语素、词类和语法构式等也可以被视为一个网络模型中的节点。一方面，节点可以是单纯节点；另一方面，节点本身内部也可能有复杂结构。
• If grammatical categories are represented as discrete nodes in complex network, we might expect closed-class categories to display polysemy in the same way that open-class categories. 另外，如果语法范畴能够通过复杂网络模型中的节点来表达，那么我们可以说封闭性范畴也像开放性范畴一样是具有多义现象的。